Get ready to chuck away your 3D glasses. A way of producing 3D TV images that work no matter where you are in the room could see images stand out from a flat TV screen – without the need for any silly eyeware.
Depth perception depends on differences between what our two eyes see, an effect called parallax. 3D movies simulate that effect by projecting the two views simultaneously onto the same screen. Viewers need special glasses that block one view from each eye at high speeds.
The trick can work without glasses, too, as long as the screen includes structures called "parallax barriers", which deliver a different view to each eye. Nintendo's 3DS handheld games console, for example, uses this technology. But the effect is quite crude and viewers must sit in a specific spot for it to work – fine for an individual holding a small screen, but no good for groups. Some, large glasses-free 3D screens are slowly becoming available on the market, but they also require the viewer to sit in certain "sweet spots".
Ramesh Raskar and colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media have developed "Tensor" – compressive displays that can create a wide field of view by splitting a 3D image into 2D slices for processing, in a similar way to a CAT scan.
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Careers advice from Nobel prizewinners
It must be the class reunion with the highest collective IQ. For one week a year the small, picturesque town of Lindau, Germany, is overtaken by Nobel laureates and about 600 young hangers-on, eager to bask in the Nobellists' glow.
The subject of the meeting alternates between the four different prize fields. This year it was the turn of the physicists. Unsurprisingly, the Higgs announcement dominated conversation, but the real purpose of these meetings is to give the next generation of promising researchers - mostly master's and PhD students - a chance to mingle with their field's most eminent alumni.
I took this opportunity to ask a few laureates what advice they had for young people planning on pursuing a research career.
You need a passion for how things work
"I knew that my passion lay in experimental science way way back," says Douglas Osheroff, who shared the 1996 Nobel prize for his research on superfluidity in a isotope of helium.
"When I was in high school as soon as my mother would trust me with her car I drove up to Seattle, the nearest big city, to visit the medical supply houses there. I told them I wanted to build an X-ray machine for a science project. I came home with a carload of stuff - it was very easy for me to put this thing together - and soon I was X-raying everything."
A mentor matters
"People can always benefit from a mentor," says John Mather, who shared the 2006 Nobel for his measurements of the radiation signature of the Big Bang. "But a mentor doesn't have to say 'Do it like this,' they can just be there to say 'You can do it; try it.' Because if you're doing something really new a mentor can't possibly know how to do it yet."
You have to go out on a limb
John Mather was still a young scientist when he took up leadership of the COBE mission at NASA, the first dedicated mission to study the origin of the universe.
"I was 28 when we had this idea [to build a detector to measure the cosmic microwave background radiation]. Nobody tells you how to lead or organise such a project. Suddenly you go from 'Let's go to work today' to 'Let's propose the most ambitious cosmology project to date.' But all you can do is start."
The subject of the meeting alternates between the four different prize fields. This year it was the turn of the physicists. Unsurprisingly, the Higgs announcement dominated conversation, but the real purpose of these meetings is to give the next generation of promising researchers - mostly master's and PhD students - a chance to mingle with their field's most eminent alumni.
I took this opportunity to ask a few laureates what advice they had for young people planning on pursuing a research career.
You need a passion for how things work
"I knew that my passion lay in experimental science way way back," says Douglas Osheroff, who shared the 1996 Nobel prize for his research on superfluidity in a isotope of helium.
"When I was in high school as soon as my mother would trust me with her car I drove up to Seattle, the nearest big city, to visit the medical supply houses there. I told them I wanted to build an X-ray machine for a science project. I came home with a carload of stuff - it was very easy for me to put this thing together - and soon I was X-raying everything."
A mentor matters
"People can always benefit from a mentor," says John Mather, who shared the 2006 Nobel for his measurements of the radiation signature of the Big Bang. "But a mentor doesn't have to say 'Do it like this,' they can just be there to say 'You can do it; try it.' Because if you're doing something really new a mentor can't possibly know how to do it yet."
You have to go out on a limb
John Mather was still a young scientist when he took up leadership of the COBE mission at NASA, the first dedicated mission to study the origin of the universe.
"I was 28 when we had this idea [to build a detector to measure the cosmic microwave background radiation]. Nobody tells you how to lead or organise such a project. Suddenly you go from 'Let's go to work today' to 'Let's propose the most ambitious cosmology project to date.' But all you can do is start."
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How much can you trust your own memory?
"Remembering is a serious business," Charles Fernyhough warns. "For a journey into the past, you have to pick your moment."
It is this respect for his subject that makes Pieces of Light such an immense pleasure, as Fernyhough casts the emerging science of memory through the lens of his own recollections. The humiliating experience of potty training, for instance, helps him to illustrate the fragmentary, disordered nature of childhood memories before language indexes our past. Touching conversations with his late grandmother, meanwhile, colour his discussions of the ageing brain and the surprising longevity of narrative memories.
In the hands of a lesser writer, such reliance on personal experience could rapidly descend into self-indulgence and cliché, but Fernyhough - a psychologist and published novelist - remains restrained and lyrical throughout.
Like all good writing, the result shines new light on the reader's own life. As Fernyhough examines the way the brain continually rewrites our past, it is almost impossible not to question the accuracy of your recollections. Even the events that we recall with the most vivid sensory detail are not to be trusted. More than three decades of research has confirmed Salvador Dalí's assertion that "the difference between false memories and true ones is the same as for jewels - it is always the false ones that look the most real, the most brilliant". Disconcertingly, some of the chapters of our life story are simply borrowed from the experiences of our closest family.
On one level, such findings are deeply troubling - they have cast much doubt on the use of eyewitness testimonies in the courtroom, particularly when it concerns apparent cases of repressed abuse "recovered" through therapy.
But provided we tread carefully, Fernyhough sees no reason why this knowledge should deter us from journeying into our past. Our recollections "might be fictions", he says, "but they are our fictions, and we should treasure them".
It is this respect for his subject that makes Pieces of Light such an immense pleasure, as Fernyhough casts the emerging science of memory through the lens of his own recollections. The humiliating experience of potty training, for instance, helps him to illustrate the fragmentary, disordered nature of childhood memories before language indexes our past. Touching conversations with his late grandmother, meanwhile, colour his discussions of the ageing brain and the surprising longevity of narrative memories.
In the hands of a lesser writer, such reliance on personal experience could rapidly descend into self-indulgence and cliché, but Fernyhough - a psychologist and published novelist - remains restrained and lyrical throughout.
Like all good writing, the result shines new light on the reader's own life. As Fernyhough examines the way the brain continually rewrites our past, it is almost impossible not to question the accuracy of your recollections. Even the events that we recall with the most vivid sensory detail are not to be trusted. More than three decades of research has confirmed Salvador Dalí's assertion that "the difference between false memories and true ones is the same as for jewels - it is always the false ones that look the most real, the most brilliant". Disconcertingly, some of the chapters of our life story are simply borrowed from the experiences of our closest family.
On one level, such findings are deeply troubling - they have cast much doubt on the use of eyewitness testimonies in the courtroom, particularly when it concerns apparent cases of repressed abuse "recovered" through therapy.
But provided we tread carefully, Fernyhough sees no reason why this knowledge should deter us from journeying into our past. Our recollections "might be fictions", he says, "but they are our fictions, and we should treasure them".
Gel mixture lets you hide a secret message in goo
A new method for mixing gels lets you hide secret messages in pools of unassuming goo, but it could also help create artificial spines.
Gels are made through a process called polymerisation, in which small molecules known as monomers join together in a tangled network. This makes mixing two gels while retaining their individual properties difficult, as the two different monomers end up combined in a single network. One solution is to polymerise the two gels first and then combine them, but that leads to a weak join between the two materials.
Now chemists at the University of Maryland have a better idea. It turns out that thickening the gel monomers with small particles of clay before polymerisation prevents them from mixing together while also providing a strong and seamless join.
The team demonstrated their new method by writing the letters "UMD" in one gel and surrounding them with another in a Petri dish, resulting in a smooth clear disc with no letters visible. The message is only revealed when viewed through polarising lenses, as the two gels polarise light differently. Another version of the same experiment using different gels only revealed the message when the disc was heated.
Hiding message isn't the real aim of the research, however, as hybrid gels have a number of other uses. Gels are currently used as scaffolding for growing tissue from stem cells, such as a new windpipe, and combined gels could be used to create mixes of different tissues. They could also replicate other organic materials that are known to be mixtures of gel-like substances, such as spinal discs.
Gels are made through a process called polymerisation, in which small molecules known as monomers join together in a tangled network. This makes mixing two gels while retaining their individual properties difficult, as the two different monomers end up combined in a single network. One solution is to polymerise the two gels first and then combine them, but that leads to a weak join between the two materials.
Now chemists at the University of Maryland have a better idea. It turns out that thickening the gel monomers with small particles of clay before polymerisation prevents them from mixing together while also providing a strong and seamless join.
The team demonstrated their new method by writing the letters "UMD" in one gel and surrounding them with another in a Petri dish, resulting in a smooth clear disc with no letters visible. The message is only revealed when viewed through polarising lenses, as the two gels polarise light differently. Another version of the same experiment using different gels only revealed the message when the disc was heated.
Hiding message isn't the real aim of the research, however, as hybrid gels have a number of other uses. Gels are currently used as scaffolding for growing tissue from stem cells, such as a new windpipe, and combined gels could be used to create mixes of different tissues. They could also replicate other organic materials that are known to be mixtures of gel-like substances, such as spinal discs.
Passing the baton of life - from Schrödinger to Venter
Sixty-nine years ago, Erwin Schrödinger stood before a crowd at Trinity College Dublin, Ireland, and tackled one of the biggest questions of science: What is life? Last night, geneticist Craig Venter stood before a packed crowd at the very same college and asked that same question.
A decade after Schrödinger was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on atomic theory, the Austrian physicist was serving as the first director of the school of theoretical physics at the newly established Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies. At a public lecture in February, 1943, he turned his attention to the physical nature of the gene. Little was understood about the composition of genes at that stage, but Schrödinger proposed that a gene could be thought of as an 'aperiodic crystal'.
That proved to be a key insight, said Luke O'Neill, professor of biochemistry at Trinity and master of ceremonies at last night's event. "The gene had to be stable, so it had to be a crystal, and it had to have information so it was aperiodic," he explained.
"Equally important, Schrödinger also discussed the possibility of a genetic code, stating the concept in clear physical terms." But while his specific insights had tremendous influence, the very fact that Schrödinger was viewing biology through a physical lens had a ripple effect through different disciplines. "A famous physicist writing about biology inspired many physicists and chemists to consider biological questions," O'Neill said.
Schrödinger's series of talks over the course of three Fridays and the book that followed went on to have an important influence on science. By looking at life from a physical perspective, Schrödinger inspired researchers including James Watson who, together with colleagues, worked out the double-helical structure of DNA in the 1950s and won a Nobel prize for the work in 1962.
How appropriate then, that as Venter took to the podium to offer a 21st century update of Schrödinger's lectures, Watson himself was in the crowd.
Venter, who has read Schrödinger's "little book" at least five times, delivered a potted history of discoveries about DNA and its functions in the cell. He described how genomes can now be sequenced in a relative lightning flash compared to the 'old' days of just 10 or 15 years ago, and he spoke about his team's work on artificially synthesising DNA to reboot cells.
"All living cells that we know of on this planet are 'DNA software'-driven biological machines comprised of hundreds of thousands of protein robots, coded for by the DNA, that carry out precise functions," said Venter. "We are now using computer software to design new DNA software."
The digital and biological worlds are becoming interchangeable, he added, describing how scientists now simply send each other the information to make DIY biological material rather than sending the material itself.
Venter also outlined a vision of small converter devices that can be attached to computers to make the structures from the digital information - perhaps the future could see us distributing information to make vaccines, foods and fuels around the world, or even to other planets. "This is biology moving at the speed of light," he said.
A decade after Schrödinger was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on atomic theory, the Austrian physicist was serving as the first director of the school of theoretical physics at the newly established Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies. At a public lecture in February, 1943, he turned his attention to the physical nature of the gene. Little was understood about the composition of genes at that stage, but Schrödinger proposed that a gene could be thought of as an 'aperiodic crystal'.
That proved to be a key insight, said Luke O'Neill, professor of biochemistry at Trinity and master of ceremonies at last night's event. "The gene had to be stable, so it had to be a crystal, and it had to have information so it was aperiodic," he explained.
"Equally important, Schrödinger also discussed the possibility of a genetic code, stating the concept in clear physical terms." But while his specific insights had tremendous influence, the very fact that Schrödinger was viewing biology through a physical lens had a ripple effect through different disciplines. "A famous physicist writing about biology inspired many physicists and chemists to consider biological questions," O'Neill said.
Schrödinger's series of talks over the course of three Fridays and the book that followed went on to have an important influence on science. By looking at life from a physical perspective, Schrödinger inspired researchers including James Watson who, together with colleagues, worked out the double-helical structure of DNA in the 1950s and won a Nobel prize for the work in 1962.
How appropriate then, that as Venter took to the podium to offer a 21st century update of Schrödinger's lectures, Watson himself was in the crowd.
Venter, who has read Schrödinger's "little book" at least five times, delivered a potted history of discoveries about DNA and its functions in the cell. He described how genomes can now be sequenced in a relative lightning flash compared to the 'old' days of just 10 or 15 years ago, and he spoke about his team's work on artificially synthesising DNA to reboot cells.
"All living cells that we know of on this planet are 'DNA software'-driven biological machines comprised of hundreds of thousands of protein robots, coded for by the DNA, that carry out precise functions," said Venter. "We are now using computer software to design new DNA software."
The digital and biological worlds are becoming interchangeable, he added, describing how scientists now simply send each other the information to make DIY biological material rather than sending the material itself.
Venter also outlined a vision of small converter devices that can be attached to computers to make the structures from the digital information - perhaps the future could see us distributing information to make vaccines, foods and fuels around the world, or even to other planets. "This is biology moving at the speed of light," he said.
Neuron forest grows out of brain trauma experiment
You can't visit this tropical jungle. It's a forest of neurons snaking through a pig's brain. The brain cells, enlarged and coloured here, are being investigated to give scientists a clearer view of the mechanics of brain matter when it is hit hard.
Michel Destrade, an applied mathematician at the National University of Ireland, Galway, and colleagues obtained samples of pig brains from a local slaughterhouse to study the mechanics of brain matter undergoing rapid impacts. With the aim of improving the treatment of traumatic head injuries, they used the samples to create computer models of electrical signals inside the brain.
But during the course of the experiment, Destrade's student Badar Rashid decided to find out what white and grey matter inside a brain look like. He started with an image of neuron bundles taken using scanning electron microscopy, and blew it up to 4,000 times its actual size. He then added colour to the black and white result according to his own aesthetic.
Michel Destrade, an applied mathematician at the National University of Ireland, Galway, and colleagues obtained samples of pig brains from a local slaughterhouse to study the mechanics of brain matter undergoing rapid impacts. With the aim of improving the treatment of traumatic head injuries, they used the samples to create computer models of electrical signals inside the brain.
But during the course of the experiment, Destrade's student Badar Rashid decided to find out what white and grey matter inside a brain look like. He started with an image of neuron bundles taken using scanning electron microscopy, and blew it up to 4,000 times its actual size. He then added colour to the black and white result according to his own aesthetic.
Astrophile: Loner galaxy is seed of giant black hole
NGC 4178 enjoyed the single life. Even though the flat, disc-shaped galaxy was getting on a bit, it had a svelte spiral figure to be proud of. Its central black hole was perfect: not too small, not too large. It had never been involved in a major merger with another galaxy, and wanted to keep it that way. None of the unsightly bulges and warps associated with too much socialising for NGC 4178.
But other, more gregarious, galaxies were getting together all around it. They merged into grand spiral galaxies in a firework display of star formation which left them with impressive bulging bellies. They pooled their central black holes until they were billions of times larger than the sun. NGC 4178 watched it all from the sidelines, glad to maintain its trim appearance, although it couldn't help wondering if it wasn't missing out on something.
Unsociable galaxies are unusual. Astronomers think that galaxies grow from scraggly clusters of stars to elegant spirals like the Milky Way by merging and pooling their resources. Loners like NGC 4178, which has spent most of the lifetime of the universe avoiding the company of other galaxies, are useful tools for disentangling how this happens. They are rare snapshots of a simpler time.
"They are more representative of the initial stuff, from when structure started to form in the universe," says Nathan Secrest, a graduate student at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. Galaxies like NGC 4178 are about "as pristine as you can get".
One of the puzzles they can help solve is the origin of supermassive black holes. Most large galaxies seem to have a giant black hole, millions or billions of times larger than the sun, at their centres. How these black holes got so big is still a mystery: did they grow gradually from mergers of smaller black holes, coalescing when their host galaxies merged? Or did they form when gas clouds collapsed in the early universe?
If these giants did grow by devouring their more diminutive counterparts, then the universe should also be riddled with middleweight black holes, tens of times the size of the sun. But only a few of these have ever been spotted.
But other, more gregarious, galaxies were getting together all around it. They merged into grand spiral galaxies in a firework display of star formation which left them with impressive bulging bellies. They pooled their central black holes until they were billions of times larger than the sun. NGC 4178 watched it all from the sidelines, glad to maintain its trim appearance, although it couldn't help wondering if it wasn't missing out on something.
Unsociable galaxies are unusual. Astronomers think that galaxies grow from scraggly clusters of stars to elegant spirals like the Milky Way by merging and pooling their resources. Loners like NGC 4178, which has spent most of the lifetime of the universe avoiding the company of other galaxies, are useful tools for disentangling how this happens. They are rare snapshots of a simpler time.
"They are more representative of the initial stuff, from when structure started to form in the universe," says Nathan Secrest, a graduate student at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. Galaxies like NGC 4178 are about "as pristine as you can get".
One of the puzzles they can help solve is the origin of supermassive black holes. Most large galaxies seem to have a giant black hole, millions or billions of times larger than the sun, at their centres. How these black holes got so big is still a mystery: did they grow gradually from mergers of smaller black holes, coalescing when their host galaxies merged? Or did they form when gas clouds collapsed in the early universe?
If these giants did grow by devouring their more diminutive counterparts, then the universe should also be riddled with middleweight black holes, tens of times the size of the sun. But only a few of these have ever been spotted.
Earth's water piggybacked on asteroids, not comets
Whether comets or asteroids were the source of Earth's water has long been the subject of debate. Now an analysis of the composition of meteorites suggests the water did not originate in the outer solar system, a finding that favours asteroids as the vehicle for its arrival.
Both asteroids and comets are found in a region of the solar system known as the asteroid belt, which occupies a wide swathe of space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. However, comets with their icy tails would have been born in the chillier region of space between Saturn and Jupiter and then migrated into the asteroid belt.
To find out whether comets or asteroids were the parents of carbonaceous chondrites: rare meteorites which delivered water and volatile elements such as nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen to Earth, a team led by Conel Alexander from the Carnegie Institution of Washington in Washington DC measured the amount of deuterium &nash; a heavy isotope of hydrogen – in 86 chondrite samples found on Earth.
The further from the sun an object was formed, the more deuterium-rich it tends to be. The chondrites Alexander tested turned out to contain significantly less deuterium than comets, indicating that the chondrites most likely originated in a different place. "So, they probably formed closer in to the sun," says Alexander, most likely in the asteroid belt itself.
Despite the finding, exactly where the chondrites formed remains an open question – one that is particularly difficult to answer, says Fred Ciesla, a researcher at the University of Chicago, Illinois, who models the formation of planets. "You can't just say, you formed something at this one location and it sat there for 4.5 billion years. Things move around all the time," he says
Both asteroids and comets are found in a region of the solar system known as the asteroid belt, which occupies a wide swathe of space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. However, comets with their icy tails would have been born in the chillier region of space between Saturn and Jupiter and then migrated into the asteroid belt.
To find out whether comets or asteroids were the parents of carbonaceous chondrites: rare meteorites which delivered water and volatile elements such as nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen to Earth, a team led by Conel Alexander from the Carnegie Institution of Washington in Washington DC measured the amount of deuterium &nash; a heavy isotope of hydrogen – in 86 chondrite samples found on Earth.
The further from the sun an object was formed, the more deuterium-rich it tends to be. The chondrites Alexander tested turned out to contain significantly less deuterium than comets, indicating that the chondrites most likely originated in a different place. "So, they probably formed closer in to the sun," says Alexander, most likely in the asteroid belt itself.
Despite the finding, exactly where the chondrites formed remains an open question – one that is particularly difficult to answer, says Fred Ciesla, a researcher at the University of Chicago, Illinois, who models the formation of planets. "You can't just say, you formed something at this one location and it sat there for 4.5 billion years. Things move around all the time," he says
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Why the dino-dolphins got the bends
See a great white shark while scuba diving, and you'll want to flee, even if surfacing quickly may cause decompression sickness – the bends. In the dinosaur era, marine reptiles had a similar problem.
The dolphins of their day, ichthyosaurs were marine reptiles that breathed air and swam at high speeds. But if they moved from deep to shallow water too fast, dissolved gases in their blood formed bubbles, impeding circulation and causing damage – evident in their scarred bones.
Ichthyosaurs from the late Jurassic and Cretaceous suffered the bends, says Bruce Rothschild at the University of Kansas in Lawrence, but it was not clear if their Triassic predecessors did too.
Analysing thousands of ichthyosaur fossils from all three periods, Rothschild and his team found that virtually none from the Triassic got the bends, compared with 15 to 20 per cent for the later periods.
Why were later ichthyosaurs more prone to the bends? Rothschild says the rise of big marine predators in the Jurassic could have been to blame: the ichthyosaurs may have got the bends while fleeing for their lives.
When you eat beats what you eat in staying healthy
Preventing obesity may be down to timing, in mice, at least. Mice allowed meals only within an 8-hour period were healthier than those that munched freely through the day, even when they consumed more fat.
A link between obesity and the time you eat meals makes sense, says Satchidananda Panda of the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California, as food choices generally get less healthy as the day progresses. Breakfast may include healthy fruits and grains, but late-night snacks are more likely to involve high-fat ice cream or high-calorie alcohol. Furthermore, research has shown that our internal clocks are closely tied to our metabolism; disrupting them can cause weight gain and diabetes.
Panda and colleagues fed two groups of mice a high-fat diet. One group could snack whenever they liked, the other could only eat during an 8-hour window. Both groups consumed the same number of calories each day. Two other groups were fed a healthy diet under the same conditions.
Three months later, the weight of mice on the all-day, high-fat diet had increased by 28 per cent. Their blood sugar levels had gone up – a risk factor for diabetes – and they also had liver damage. In contrast, mice eating a high-fat diet for only 8 hours a day stayed healthy and didn't become obese. They also had better balance than mice on a healthy diet.
Panda reckons the shortened feeding period gives metabolic systems longer to perform their function uninterrupted by a new influx of nutrients.
RNA breakthrough transforms idea of gene control
Tiny chemical changes that do not alter the sequence of our DNA but modulate how it works have been found to act on a new part of our genetic machinery. The discovery could provide insights into many health problems, including obesity.
It has been long known that DNA can be altered "epigenetically" – where changes occur without altering the sequence of DNA but leave chemical marks on genes that dictate how active they are by adding chemical methyl groups that silence genes, for example. Numerous environmental factors, such as stress and smoking, have been shown to influence these epigenetic marks.
Now, researchers have discovered that messenger RNA, the mirror-image copy of DNA from which all proteins are manufactured, can be methylated too.
"We've discovered something fundamental to biology," says Samie Jaffrey of Cornell University in New York, and head of the team that made the discovery. "It was there all the time and no-one knew about it."
Fundamental discovery
Jaffrey's team found that around a fifth of the RNA produced in cells from rat brains and human kidneys contained methylated versions of adenosine, one of the four building blocks of our genetic code. "It was exciting to find that 20 per cent had methyl groups, so it must be a pretty fundamental regulatory mechanism," says Jaffrey.
Separate analyses of assorted rat tissues demonstrated that the methylated RNA was concentrated in the brain, liver and kidneys. Also, samples from rat embryos showed that concentrations rose 70-fold in the brain as it reached the final stages of growth, therefore they are likely to play a fundamental role in development.
The team also discovered that the methyl groups are stripped off the RNA by an enzyme linked with obesity. The enzyme is made by a gene called FTO, one variant of which raises the risk of obesity by 70 per cent. People with an overactive copy of the gene are most at risk, suggesting that stripping the methyl groups from RNA might somehow alter our metabolism.
The researchers found that methylated adenosine tended to cluster close to the point on the RNA strand where protein manufacture reaches completion, and on regions where other proteins bind to the strand to alter or halt production. The suggestion is that methylation may therefore dictate how much protein gets made, and when. "It's not changing what would be made, but it might govern how much and when it's made," says Jaffrey. This, he says, could in turn have a big impact on a multitude of physiological processes and disease.
International Space Station enters 2001's star gate
Just because you're sitting in the most expensive bit of kit on the planet (well, orbiting the planet) it doesn't mean you can overcome all the technical glitches of digital photography.
This is what Expedition 31 flight engineer Don Pettit on the International Space Station has found while trying to create star trail photos. Such photos capture the night sky in exposures so long that the imperceptibly slow movements of the stars around the poles become bright streaks. To get this effect using film-based cameras, astrophotographers need to leave their camera's shutter open for 10 to 15 minutes.
However, most digital cameras are unable to have their shutters open for more than about 30 seconds at a time. So instead of one long exposure, amateur star photographers take a series of 30-second shots and later combine them together on a computer. Pettit used this technique to stack 18 photos taken by a stationary camera on the ISS.
Often the appeal of star trail images lies in the sharpness of the foreground - often a remote, still and beautiful landscape - contrasted with the whirling energy of the stars moving above. For Pettit's photo the Earth is spinning past quickly too, and the only still point of reference is part of the space station itself at the top of the photograph.
Lots of nail biting on the eve of a historic launch
With the first commercial spacecraft to attempt docking with the International Space Station waiting on the launch pad, nerves and excitement are high. And hours before the historic launch, officials from NASA and private company SpaceX are managing expectations.
"It bears repeating that this is a test flight," said director for NASA Commercial Spaceflight Development Phil McAlister in a press conference today, where he was reluctant to even use the word "success". "NASA views test flights as learning opportunities."
The cargo-carrying Dragon capsule has a long list of firsts to achieve in the next few days. It's scheduled to launch at 4:15 am eastern time tomorrow, and will spend the first 24 hours catching up with the International Space Station in low-Earth orbit. At around hour 40, it will begin a choreographed dance around the space station to make sure it's sufficiently under control to attempt docking. Astronauts on the space station will test communications with the Dragon and can abort the mission at any time.
If everything goes well, Dragon will dock to the space station by 75 hours after launch, early morning on Tuesday 22 May.
"If successful, there's no question this is the historic flight," said SpaceX president Gwynne Shotwell. "I think we're going to be biting off our fingers between now and hour 75."
Shotwell also stressed that this is a test flight and things could go wrong.
"Success is not going to mean the success of the commercial space industry, and failure is not going to mean the failure of the commercial space industry," she said. "We'd hope that every flight is successful, that would make my job incredibly easy. But I don't want to say that, I don't think that's realistic."
Despite that, she has an optimistic view of the future. The company has 17 launches planned in the next three years, and could be bringing astronauts into space as early as 2015, Shotwell says - although McAlister says it may be more like 2017 before they're certified to fly NASA astronauts.
And the transition from big government organizations to private companies navigating the skies may be inevitable, he added.
"Once we get the private sector out there, there will be no turning back," he said. "[Spaceflight] will no longer be subject to the prevailing political winds. It will just push further and further out, no more looking backwards, only looking forwards."
Zuckerberg patents aim to simplify Facebook messages
The world's attention may be focused on Facebook's initial public offering and the outsize valuation of the company - but the business of innovation continues in the background for Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg. He's been named as a co-inventor on four Facebook patent applications (the top four) published yesterday by the US patent office.
The filings show Facebook is planning a heap of ways to make more sense of the multitude of different message types that users send and receive on the social network. Why? "It is easy for a user to become overwhelmed with the constant stream of incoming messages," Zuckerberg and colleagues admit in the preamble to patent application US 2012/0124483.
This firehose includes updates from pals, inbox mails, event notifiers, apps, web-chat clients and photosharing sites - like recently-acquired Instagram. The idea seems to be to try to make sending and receiving messages a more coherent, less distracting, process.
In patent application US 2012/0124146, for instance, one idea is that the network can learn how you usually communicate with a recipient. So if you normally send Facebook updates to Joe Soap, and then suddenly you begin texting him, the system will ensure your texts arrive in his Facebook inbox, rather than his phone alone.
Another of the patents, US 2012/0124147, suggests Facebook's servers automatically organise messages into related conversation subject threads. Still another, US 2012/0124148 seeks out contextual information related to messages (such as a link to a profile, or a profile picture) of someone who has provided key information in a thread.
None of this is startlingly innovative - but there's a landgrab going on in the computer-implemented invention field as patent lawsuits proliferate - and firms worry they may be the next target of a patent troll or a floundering rival out to make a buck.
For my money, the best Facebook invention revealed this week was this one: the bizarrely jury-rigged smartphone that allowed Zuckerberg to post to Facebook the moment he hit a button to ring the trading bell at NASDAQ as the IPO kicked off.
Sumatran orang-utans delay puberty to build up strength
ANY teenage boy will confirm that older boys make it impossible to get the girls. Young male orang-utans with the same problem have a unique and unexpected solution: they don't grow up until they are strong enough to challenge the dominant males.
Male orang-utans can reproduce from around age 15, but in order to attract a mate they also have to develop secondary sexual characteristics - the equivalent of men growing chest hair. These include conspicuous cheek flanges. Yet Sumatran orang-utans often delay acquiring flanges, sometimes for over 10 years. No other primates do this, not even Bornean orang-utans.
Gauri Pradhan of the University of South Florida in Tampa and colleagues noted another difference between the species: unlike Bornean males, Sumatran males can monopolise females for weeks at a time. Pradhan built mathematical models of orang-utan populations from decades of field data, and varied the extent to which males could monopolise females. She found that males that could delay maturation did better when a few males controlled all the females. They gradually built up physical strength until they were capable of deposing the dominant males, at which point they matured (American Journal of Physical Anthropology, DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22079). The model is simple yet solid, says Madeleine Hardus of the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands.
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From tinkering on the fringes to Nobel glory
Andre Geim shared the Nobel prize in physics in 2010 for his co-discovery of graphene. He is director of the Manchester Centre for Mesoscience & Nanotechnology at the University of Manchester
What makes a good day for you?
There are two things. The first is a good result, one which you sort of expected but that never previously came through. A really great result is always unexpected, and you never believe it. But there is this second-tier result, where you have a marginal expectation and something happens and you feel lucky. The second is when you get a journal paper accepted. It's always a fight. Even our Nobel-acknowledged paper needed significant changes before it was accepted.
Winning a Nobel prize has been known to interrupt the winner's work. How has it affected yours?
Actually, before the Nobel prize I accumulated such inertia that I managed to go through the "prize barrier" relatively unscathed. Our work continues because it is a very hot area. It's very unusual for a Nobel to be given for something which continues to be incredibly hot. One of my colleagues said that when he heard the announcement, he thought to himself: "Oh good, now they'll leave this area for me." Then he saw another of our papers published, and thought: "damn, they're still working on it!"
What makes a good day for you?
There are two things. The first is a good result, one which you sort of expected but that never previously came through. A really great result is always unexpected, and you never believe it. But there is this second-tier result, where you have a marginal expectation and something happens and you feel lucky. The second is when you get a journal paper accepted. It's always a fight. Even our Nobel-acknowledged paper needed significant changes before it was accepted.
Winning a Nobel prize has been known to interrupt the winner's work. How has it affected yours?
Actually, before the Nobel prize I accumulated such inertia that I managed to go through the "prize barrier" relatively unscathed. Our work continues because it is a very hot area. It's very unusual for a Nobel to be given for something which continues to be incredibly hot. One of my colleagues said that when he heard the announcement, he thought to himself: "Oh good, now they'll leave this area for me." Then he saw another of our papers published, and thought: "damn, they're still working on it!"
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